Taking Charge of Battery Recycling

Batteries, we do love them. Smaller than a lentil, as big as a steamer trunk, and everything in between. We rely on them to tell time, power phones, brighten a campsite, trim our grass, detect fires, fix almost everything, and, of course, take us to work and back.

While to most of us these plastic-encased units are a mystery, the fact that they work is usually all we need to know. But big or small, they have one thing in common: they are all chemical reactors, and each type is designed specifically to deliver just the right amount of voltage a device requires, be it a flashlight or an automobile.

Today's batteries still operate on the same principle discovered by their first inventor, Alessandro Volta. He found in the late 1700’s that if you stacked disks of copper and zinc, separated by cloth soaked in salty water, and then attached wires to either end, you got continuous current. He demonstrated that one end of the stacks (the anode) delivered the energy to the other one (the cathode) and that the salt solution was the means to activate electrons and convey the energy.

It's not called voltage for nothing!

Over the centuries, batteries have undergone many incarnations with two basic types in use: primary or single-life; and secondary, or rechargeables. Their stories are fascinating history.

Primarily perfect, for a while

By the end of the 1800’s, a dry-cell battery could be produced as smaller, totally sealed units that were portable. Perfect for the new invention called the “flashlight,” that the Ever Ready Company popularized globally with its eponymous portable product.

This paved the way for researchers who developed the longer lasting, alkaline batteries introduced in the 1960’s. In the US, 80% of batteries now produced are primary alkaline batteries—they’re cheap, come in many sizes, and are a household favorite. But once they’ve been fully discharged, they are literally out of energy. If you try to recharge them, they could explode and that oxidation powder that collects at the end of their life is very corrosive.

Then there are secondary, the rechargeables, but they're not as new as we think!

Bringing the dead back to life

The first rechargeable appeared in 1859 as the ordinary lead acid automobile battery. We don't really think of them as rechargeables, but anyone who's been left stranded with a dead one is reassured it can come to life again with the right power source.

But lead acid is big and heavy, so innovators then developed the first Nickel Cadmium rechargeable around 1900. Unfortunately, there wasn't much to power up until the 1960’s when the electric cordless drill with a rechargeable battery system was launched. NiCads, as they were known, became very popular for cameras, radios, video equipment, and phones. Their use dropped dramatically with concerns over Cadmium toxicity as a hazardous waste.

Still not satisfied, scientists began to work with Lithium, the third lightest element known. The trial and error included flammability issues with the first versions. Finally, a non-aqueous solution—lithium-cobalt-oxide—as a positive electrode, and carbonaceous materials for the negative, was the perfect recipe. In collaboration with its inventor Akira Yoshiro, the Sony company introduced the Li-Ion rechargeable battery in 1992, just in time to power up the new generation of laptops, cell phones,  and cameras.

With perfection at hand, the Lithium-ion battery has now become the primary component of the portable device market. Plus, they replaced heavy lead-acid batteries first in the electric automobile arena and the EV battery is gaining ground every year among consumers. But here's the rub.

We've been “recharging” these EVE units for nearly two decades, and now they are coming to the end of their life, and it's not something you can drop at the curb, or really, anywhere.

Handling the safety of battery recycling

Former SWANA CEO David Biderman is extremely concerned at the fallout of the lithium battery disposal situation. He describes the current battery recycle landscape for both large and small units.

“We have a patchwork of battery recycling efforts in this country. Big box stores, for example, have battery collection areas, which is fine if you have a car and you remember to take them and go there.”

Yet, without any uniform regulation on batteries there is inconsistent collection and most consumers, including car owners, are baffled about what to do with them.

“Consumers know you should never pour used car oil down the storm drain; first of all, it’s illegal and secondly, we know it’s bad for our water supply. But they’re really not sure what to do with batteries, and there is no widespread policy for guidance.”

One look at online sources only confuses the issue with conflicting answers. Some say primary batteries, such as alkalines, are made of common metals and do not pose a health or environmental risk during normal disposal. Others say if you can take them to a recycling center then you should.

When it comes to Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), however, the reports are unanimous: they must never be thrown in the trash; they are unequivocally a dangerous product.

“Yet, if consumers don’t actually know what it is, and a battery is a battery with no distinctions, then more often than not, they get tossed into a residential bin and end up at a recycling facility or a landfill,” Biderman says, and describes what can happen.

The novel structure of a Lithium battery that makes it so good, is also what makes it so deadly—a double-edged sword. It is reliable, lasts a long time with recharging, and delivers consistent power. But these unique properties can be deadly if the sealed battery is breached.

“Even if you have a lithium-ion battery that has lost its ability to properly power your device, despite recharging, it should never go into curbside collection that might end up at a landfill or MRF.”

He says that the number of facility fires has risen substantially in recent years and the cause is attributed to Lithium-ion batteries.

“People don't realize there is still energy in that battery and if allowed to escape through its sealed shell it can ignite on impact. At landfills or MRFs this is treacherous because compactors and machinery are constantly crushing waste. If that type of activity causes a battery to break open, it’s the perfect recipe for a fire. And what could be worse than a fire in a landfill or a MRF with all that paper and flammable material.”

Fires can also happen when batteries are crushed in waste collection vehicles. Biderman cites a 2021 EU study that reports staggering figures. The authors say that breached LIBs “have toxic gas release, e.g. Hydrogen Fluoride and Hydrogen Cyanide, ....cause leaching of toxic metal nano-oxides and the formation of dangerous degradation products from the battery electrolyte. Ultimately, pollutants can contaminate the soil, water and air and pose a threat to human life and health.”

Furthermore, the report estimates that in 2009 there were about 134,000 tons of LIB storage capacity in the market, but by 2030 they estimate that will have risen to over 12.7 million tons in the market. Having strategies in place to manage this astronomical volume of waste from spent LIBs is crucial.

Also, in a 2021 EPA report that agency reviewed US landfill fire data and found that 245 fires were attributed to lithium batteries, a statistic that Biderman says is probably underrepresented.

So, who should take action? Biderman says that up until recently, he observed battery producers as being less involved in the recycling as they could be.

“What this does is put the burden on the buyer to act responsibly.”

He adds that the national recycling strategy includes an EPA goal to divert 50% of trash to recycling by 2030.

“This is very ambitious and will require more than goodwill from consumers to do the right thing. SWANA took that EPA report to Congress to push for more uniform legislation.”

Beyond the landfill, he says the risk of fire is now getting too close for comfort. 

“In New York City, we're seeing fires actually break out in people’s apartments from e-bikes, so really, anywhere there is a lithium-ion battery there is a risk if it is not handled properly.”

But the fires from lithium-ion have complex outcomes beyond the event itself.

“It's not just the destruction at that site. Neighborhoods are impacted by smoke, cities may have to shut down collection and recycling, and the costs to repair property or vehicles affected by fire drains the town pocketbook.”

Safety for both MSW property and its people, Biderman says, is number one on SWANA’s agenda, and getting batteries out of the waste stream to reduce risk will be a huge effort.

There are now increasing efforts toward battery recycling and new uses for spent batteries as Eric Frederickson, Managing Director of Operations and Compliance of Call2Recycle explains.

Safety heads the list

According to Frederickson, the organization was formed just as the rechargeable battery was “untethering the tradesperson.

“In 1994, our organization was formed right around the same time that portable power was taking off. At the time, Nickel Cadmiums (Ni-Cds), the prevailing rechargeable battery in use, had end-of-life concerns over Cadmium as being problematic for the environment. The rechargeable power industry provided monies to start a collection and recycling program for Ni-Cds and funded the inception of the Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation (RBRC).”

The RBRC went on to become the premier rechargeable battery recycling organization throughout North America. After successfully introducing programs for all small rechargeable batteries and winning numerous US and Canadian awards for environmental responsibility, the group was formally renamed in 2013 as Call2Recycle.

“The big longtime challenge that is starting to finally change is awareness. In the early days we didn’t have to be experts on battery safety because there weren’t many battery safety concerns, but now it’s an obligation to be functional experts on safety. We are the organization that the MSW arena looks to for input on how to manage rechargeables.”

He explains that more recently, two streams of rechargeable batteries now exist as EVs are becoming widely used. Nearly two decades since the introduction of Tesla, these rechargeable batteries are now entering the recycling space. And they pose a much different challenge than their household counterparts. It's all about the materials recovery.

“As consumers, everything we use has been grown or dug out of the ground. Over 80% of the lead in a lead-acid battery is not living its first life in that unit. And for smaller rechargeables, over 60% of the nickel in new steel is also not living its first life.”

Lithium-based EVs however, are a new recycling conundrum.

He explains that in the traditional combustion engine world, there is not now and never has been a relationship with the manufacturer (OEM) and the recycler of those batteries.

“The OEMs have very little role to play and here's why. Lead-acid car battery recycling is a commoditized process and has been since the 1930’s.  We’ve perfected the crushing and extracting that is now so sophisticated nearly 100% of the battery can be reclaimed.

“With Lithium it is a very different story. The energy remaining in most lithium batteries is easily prone to igniting a fire. And, while we have nearly a century of experience with lead-acid, lithium-ion is a new battery group and the technology is not yet perfected.”

And Frederickson adds another consideration.

“There are 4000 auto salvage yards and scrap yards, over 200 shredders and yet, there only six places you can send an end-of-life EV pack.”

As the third lightest element, Lithium floats on water, has a metallic luster but reacts quickly with air and turns from silvery to black. It is highly toxic to humans and reacts with water to form lithium hydroxide, releasing highly flammable hydrogen. Nearly three fourths of all mined lithium goes to the battery market with the rest used in glass, lubricants and other industries.

“But unlike lead-acid batteries that are completely demolished and then treated for reclamation, you don't need to do that with EV's.

“While the pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical processing typically used to recover battery materials like cobalt and nickel can be suitable for EVs, we don't need to render the batteries to that state. If we keep the metal from the battery in its highest value state rather than sequester it away from everything else, we can keep it as a precursor material and inject that back into the manufacturing process."

One analogy might be if a bicycle had all its rubber components removed, you wouldn't melt down the bicycle to re-make a new one. You might just rebuild it as close to the original.

“Since you certainly can't crush a lithium EV battery without risking an explosion or fire, newer chemical technologies we are developing now allow reclamation of the lithium by recovering their cathode active material that has a high value.”

Another consideration is that the companies who make batteries require the materials they use to undergo a purity qualification. If a recycler offers reclaimed metals, it can take up to a year to obtain an official ‘seal of approval’ to validate that the material meets manufacturing standards.

So, this leaves a situation where demand for lithium-ion batteries increases, but the recycling process is in its infancy, and mining for new material must make up for the difference. What needs to happen to shift that balance?

First, there is a push for producer responsibility, and Frederickson says it's not so much because of the environmental or critical materials return, but rather “the safety concern that is engaging producers to get involved.

“One of the critical aspects influencing producer responsibility is a landfill ban, and we are seeing more of these as the number of fires attributed to lithium batteries get the attention of municipalities. It's not the EVs catching fire but the power and device batteries, which we all own in double digits.”

But the ban must be accompanied with a program of guidance and awareness for the battery owners trying to dispose of them.

“First, you have to increase awareness by telling people to recycle their batteries. About 86% of the battery consumers are within ten miles of a Call2Recycle recycling drop-off location, so the opportunity exists for most of us.”

But the biggest impediment is not creating that awareness but getting to people to act on the knowledge and follow through. One example that connects the consumer with the producer and the recycling concept is the Call2Recycle e-bike program.

"In 2022, we started our e-bike battery program. And we worked with e-bike manufacturers because when riders are done with their batteries, they have no idea what to do with them. So now, we're helping to administer programs that enable e-bike stores to inform their customers about accepting batteries back for recycling.”

As the broader picture of critical climate change affects all of us globally, “the need to transition to electrification responsibly requires an overhaul of protocols.”  Partnerships must be formed with innovators to make battery recycling an economic value for all.

“If you have one drill battery it's not worth it, but if you have a pallet of them, then you have value.”

Capturing that second life

At Vancouver-based Moment Energy, transforming the dilemma of what to do with spent batteries has been ingeniously turned into an opportunity. Sumreen Rattan, the Co-founder and COO describes the company goal as one of helping reduce oil and gas dependence through EV re-purposing. And for her, there is another, more personal mission.

“I’m very motivated to have my work in this arena act as a positive demonstration to other women that professional careers in sustainable energy and engineering are well within each.”

Citing only 10% of her university engineering program as female “but in some tech programs, that is now close to 50/50 so it’s important that these groundbreaking trends continue, especially in this exciting era of energy transformation.”

Along with like-minded colleagues from regional Vancouver-located Simon Fraser University, “We decided to start this company when we learned that tons of EV batteries are retiring with no place to go. With only 5% of them sustainably handled we were shocked at the implications and knew we could change those numbers.”

The four-member team of energy electronic systems engineers joined forces to create a collaborative process that brings automakers together with their company.

“We are the only company that works directly with major automakers like Nissan North America and Mercedes Benz Energy, to repurpose the EV batteries. What's really stunning about these units is that they have 80% of their original capacity, meaning the repurposing process is working with very viable material.

“Car owners turn their EV in when they find it losing performance, but that does not in any way mean it is useless. It's just not as productive in output as it was when new. If you usually get 400 kilometers on your charge and then after ten years you are getting 250k’s, it is not sustaining the vehicle in the manner the owner expects.”

Rattan explains that the automakers collect the used batteries at their dealerships, and they have the expertise to safely disassemble them out of their “shell casing” that was installed in the car. The OEM then contacts Moment Energy who then tests them for safety and modifies and reconfigures the components for its next life.

What kind of second life then, can these units look forward to?

“There are so many possibilities. First, we take in the retired EV batteries and instead of separating out components of the entire battery, we keep it as intact as possible. Then, we can combine several of these batteries in to energy storage units. These are available commercially now and can be used to power buildings, and entire residential neighborhoods to be off grid, or as back up energy for emergency power.”

Rattan says they are also talking to different indigenous groups who are often underserved and live in regions with poor access to reliable power.

“These repurposed batteries can create the solution to the entire global market that has low or no power sources. And at the same time reduce dependence on gas or diesel generators. The goal is to create an infrastructure that can store solar and wind power and is reliably available.”

She cites another concern where the storage units have great value. 

“Municipalities are seeing the increase in EVs, but they don’t have enough charging stations easily accessible for their community.

“Making these available would typically require an expensive power upgrade, with costs passed on to the ratepayers. But, as we see an increase in electric vehicles on the road, keeping them on the road is essential. So here is another perfect solution--using old EV batteries as a power source to charge new EV batteries.”

And nearly 3,000 miles away as the crow flies, Terry %2